For a complete list of publications, please see my CV.
For information on Kandybowicz book holdings on WorldCat, click here.
1. Perfect Island Repair by Ellipsis in Nupe: Against Aspectual Mismatch
(With Gesoel Mendes)
2024. Ms.
Perfect island effects in Nupe arise when non-edge vP-internal material is A′-extracted in a clause containing the perfect marker. Mendes and Kandybowicz (2023), reported that Nupe perfect islands are neutralized in sluicing/stripping environments and argued that perfect island violations can be salvaged by ellipsis. Mendes and Kandybowicz (2023) empirically rejected several alternative analyses which do not resort to repair: pseudosluicing, non-deletion, non-movement, and resumption. Not considered, however, was aspectual mismatch. In this snippet, we argue against this alternative analysis and conclude that Nupe perfect island violations can indeed be repaired by deletion.
2. Absence of Clausal Islands in Shupamem
(With Hagay Schurr, Laziz Nchare, Tysean Bucknor, Magdalena Markowska, Xiaomeng Ma, and Armando Tapia)
2024. Languages 9.1 (7): 1–35.
This article argues that in Shupamem, all clausal configurations expected to have the status of opaque island domains fail to block the formation of long‐distance A-bar dependencies involving object ex situ focus. In support of the claim that A-bar movement has occurred in such cases, we rely on evidence from three wh‐ movement diagnostics (weak crossover effects, reconstruction phenomena and quantifier float). Furthermore, we show that non‐movement dependencies across purported island boundaries in the language are also possible through the licensing of “island”‐internal negative concord items by external non‐local negators. We conclude that clausal island effects fail to materialize in Shupamem ex situ focus constructions and negative concord item‐licensing domains. Based on an exploratory typological survey of islands in African languages, we indicate a trend toward varying degrees of island permeability in the area, concluding that while Shupamem is not an isolated example, it features one of the most permissive grammars known to date in this respect.
3. Question Formation in Ekhwa Adara
(With Josh Amaris, Emmanuel Bawa, Zhilang Liu, Aidan Malanoski, Margaret Matte, Olivia Mignone, Nhu-Anh Nguyen, Shane Quinn, and Alaa Sharif)
2023. Talk given at Annual Conference on African Linguistics 54. Handout.
This paper presents the first description of interrogatives in Adara, an under-documented Benue-Congo language of Nigeria spoken by approximately 300,000 (Hon et al. 2018) to 500,000 people (Simons & Fennig 2018). We investigate polar and wh– questions in Ekhwa Adara (EA), the least researched of Adara’s five dialects. Our key findings are as follows: polar Qs involve final lengthening + L% boundary tones; polar Qs are optionally marked by sentence-initial Q particles; EA is an optional wh– movement language; ex-situ wh– obligatorily precedes Foc0: Foc0 (wh– ‘WHO’) ≠ Foc0 (wh– ‘WHAT’) ≠ Foc0 (wh–ADJUNCT); long-distance wh– in-situ is possible; long-distance subject wh– movement requires pronominal resumption, but long wh– movement of non-subjects does not; partial wh– movement is possible; indirect Qs are formed via relativization, except when embedded under ‘ask’; there is an absence of superiority effects in multiple wh– questions; and multiple wh– fronting is possible, but constrained – the initial fronted wh– must be hierarchically inferior to the other(s).
4. Escaping African ‘Islands’
2023. Slides of plenary talk given at Annual Conference on African Linguistics 54.
Island effects have long been regarded as evidence for domain-specific innate constraints on language and as such, have been cited as one motivation for Universal Grammar. Decades of literature on islands have uncovered similarities in island effects across a wide range of languages, leading to the conclusion that a number of island constraints are candidates for language universals. The languages surveyed that have given rise to this impression, however, tend not to be African languages. Within the past few years, a number of works focused on the nature of islands in African languages have uncovered a trend in which one or more classic “island” configuration is transparent for A-bar dependency formation (Korsah & Murphy 2019; Georgi & Amaechi 2020, 2022; Hein 2020; Keupdjio 2020; Kandybowicz et al. 2023; and Schurr et al. 2023, among others). Do the porous “islands” observed in African languages represent instances of true variation or do they reveal that island constraints are cross-linguistically more variable than previously believed? In this talk, I bring together research on African languages that seemingly represent counterexamples to classical island constraints in order to address the issue of the universality of island constraints and enrich our understanding of the nature of islands. The empirical focus is the absence of strong clausal islands in Shupamem, a Grassfields Bantu language of Cameroon that is embedded in a region of Africa with a fairly high concentration of languages that also seem to lack (at least some) strong island effects.
5. Escaping African ‘Islands‘ (Edited volume)
To appear. Guest editor for special issue of Languages journal.
This special issue brings together research on African languages that seemingly represent counterexamples to classical island constraints in order to address the issue of the universality of island constraints and enrich our understanding of the nature of islands. Articles will both document instances of purported “island violations” in African languages and provide argumentation for the claim that escape (i.e. movement) took place in such cases. Articles will also discuss address whether the “violations” in question reflect instances of “surface island variation” or “deep island violation” in Phillips’ (2013a,b) sense and if possible, speculate on why the relevant domains do not have island status in the language(s). To the best of my knowledge, the volume will represent the first of its kind in the literature.
6. Aspects of Ikpana Grammar
(with Bertille Baron Obi, Philip T. Duncan, & Hironori Katsuda)
In progress. Lincom GmbH. Studies in African Linguistics.
This book provides a highly detailed theoretically-informed description and analysis of selected aspects of the grammar of Ikpana, an endangered indigenous Ghana-Togo Mountain language of southeastern Ghana. It will represent the first published and commercially available grammar of Ikpana. The following topics are covered: tonology; intonation; hiatus resolution; nominal syntax; verbal syntax; negation; and the syntax of adpositions. Adopting a combination of experimental and formal/theoretical methodologies, the book highlights typologically noteworthy aspects of Ikpana grammar and discusses their significance for our understanding of the human language faculty and linguistic diversity. The book also features four fully transcribed and analyzed Ikpana texts comprised of folk stories and traditional songs.
7. Ikpana Interrogatives
(with Bertille Baron Obi, Philip T. Duncan, & Hironori Katsuda)
2023. Oxford University Press. Oxford Studies of Endangered Languages.
This book documents the interrogative system of Ikpana, an endangered indigenous Ghana-Togo Mountain language of eastern Ghana also known as Logba. The system is notable is several respects. It exhibits features that: 1) buck certain typological trends, 2) act as counterexamples to certain claims about language universals, and 3) exemplify fascinating patterns that are either rare or unfamiliar in interrogative systems cross-linguistically. The book provides a theoretically-informed description and analysis of Ikpana interrogative grammar, encompassing both syntactic and phonological aspects of question formation in the language, including intonation and prosody, drawing on original fieldwork and a combination of formal/theoretical and experimental methodologies. Our coverage includes the following phenomena: polar questions; wh– questions; wh– movement; partial wh– movement; wh– in-situ; indirect questions; multiple wh– questions; and superiority, intervention, and island effects, among others. Over the course of the book, we demonstrate the value of documenting aspects of a language with theoretical considerations in mind by showing that theoretically-guided language documentation has the potential to not only make significant contributions to language description, uncovering the existence of missing gaps in the documentary record of a language, it also has the ability to grow our understanding of the human Language Faculty and expand the empirical base of our language typologies. We argue that by bringing formal/theoretical concerns to the fore when documenting a language, we can reach richer descriptions of the grammar in ways that would have been impossible if approached from a purely descriptive perspective.
8. Sluicing and Focus Related Particles in Brazilian Portuguese and Nupe
(With Gesoel Mendes)
2022. Revista Linguíʃtica 18.1: 39–61.
We argue that the C-element que, following fronted wh-elements and fronted focused elements more generally in Brazilian Portuguese, is realized as Fin, rather than Foc. We put together three observations from the literature: (i) the appearance of que is contingent on wh/focus fronting; (ii) que introduces a finite clause, and (iii) que disappears under sluicing. We present novel evidence that Nupe’s focus particle is a left peripheral element and that Nupe provides a concrete counterexample to Merchant’s Sluicing-COMP generalization. A comparison between Nupe and Brazilian Portuguese regarding the presence of nonoperator material in sluicing constructions is crucial to establishing sluicing as FinP ellipsis instead of TP ellipsis, as standardly assumed, as well as que as a Fin element. We offer an analysis that captures all of the Brazilian Portuguese distributional facts, according to which que is a Fin head with a [finite] feature and an uninterpretable [ufoc] feature that must be licensed by Agree with a higher focus head.
9. Integrated Non-restrictive Relative Clauses in Shupamem
(With Laziz Nchare)
2022. To appear in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. Online version available now.
This article investigates the structural and interpretative properties of relative clauses in Shupamem, an under-studied Grassfields Bantu language of Cameroon, focusing on the integration of non-restrictive relative clauses, an under-researched aspect of relative clause syntax. We show that non-restrictive relatives have the same properties as restrictive relatives in the language and argue that considerations relating to illocutionary independence, scope relations with matrix negation and intentional verbs, VP ellipsis, pronominalization, binding, weak crossover effects, parasitic gaps, and split antecedents, among others, support the conclusion that Shupamem non-restrictives are clause-internal nominally-integrated syntactic objects, as in Italian and Mandarin Chinese. This finding supports Cinque’s (2008) discovery that non-restrictive relative clauses come in both integrated and non-integrated varieties and typologically places Shupamem among the languages of the world that exclusively manifest the (currently rare) integrated non-restrictive relative clause structure.
10. Salvation by Deletion in Nupe
(With Gesoel Mendes)
2022. To appear in Linguistic Inquiry. Online Early access available now.
This article presents novel data from clausal ellipsis in Nupe and explores its theoretical implications. Three claims are made. First, sluicing in Nupe counter-exemplifies Merchant’s (2001) Sluicing-COMP Generalization. Second, ungrammatical outputs resulting from extraction from perfect clauses in the language are salvaged by ellipsis, arguing against Kandybowicz’s (2009) analysis that the Nupe perfect extraction restriction is a narrow syntactic derivational constraint. And third, COMP-trace effects in Nupe are also repaired under ellipsis, lending further support to Kandybowicz’s (2009) claim that the Nupe COMP-trace effect is an interface phenomenon. Our findings provide supporting evidence for the claim that ellipsis can indeed repair certain otherwise ill-formed structures.
11. Managing Data for Theoretical Syntactic Study of a Language
(with Philip T. Duncan, Harold Torrence & Travis Major)
2022. In Andrea L. Perez-Kroeker, Bradley McDonnell, Eve Koller, & Lauren Collister (eds.), The Open Handbook of Linguistic Data Management, 523–530. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
This article highlights key aspects of the design and workflow of a collaborative project to document the interrogative systems of two Ghana-Togo Mountain languages, Ikpana and Avatime. The version of data management outlined is but one example of what data management for theoretical syntax could look like. Some of what is emphasized is particular to working with un- or under-documented and Indigenous languages, though we also attend to principles that are useful across different contexts. We emphasize two interacting priorities that inform all domains of planning and management: first, the importance of doing good descriptive and documentary linguistics throughout to provide a solid foundation for theoretical work; and, second, the need for theoretically-informed description and data collection.
12. Documenting the Ikpana Interrogative System
(with Bertille Baron Obi, Philip T. Duncan & Hironori Katsuda)
2021. Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 42: 63–100.
This article provides the first comprehensive treatment of the interrogative system of Ikpana, an endangered Ghana-Togo Mountain language. Interrogative expressions may appear clause-internally in their base-generated positions or in the left periphery followed by one of two optionally droppable particles with distinct syntactic properties. Wh– movement structures are either focus constructions or cleft structures depending on the accompanying particle. The article identifies an interesting wh– movement asymmetry – unlike all other wh– movement structures, ‘how’ questions may not be formed via the focus or cleft strategy. A number of other attested wh– structures in the language are documented, including long-distance wh– movement, partial wh– movement, long-distance wh– in-situ, and multiple wh– questions. The article also features a description and analysis of the intonation of questions in the language and discusses the ways in which the intonation of Ikpana questions is surprising and unexpected when compared to the intonational systems of genetically and areally related languages.
13. On the Absence of (Certain) Islands in Shupamem
(With Hagay Schurr, Laziz Nchare, Tysean Bucknor, Magdalena Markowska, Xiaomeng Ma, and Armando Tapia)
2021. Talk given at Annual Conference on African Linguistics 51–52.
This paper presents an argument that there are virtually no islands in Shupamem. Sentential subjects, complex NPs, temporal adjunct clauses, reason adjunct clauses, conditional adjunct clauses, factive clauses, and embedded questions all permit A-bar extraction. Evidence that movement out of these domains is permitted comes from a number of observations: 1) movement out of these domains gives rise to both strong and weak crossover effects; 2) parasitic gaps inside the “islands” are licensed by movement out of the domains; and 3) reconstruction effects are observed following movement. The only true syntactic island in the language appears to be the second conjunct (but not the first) of NP coordinate structures.
14. Predicate Fronting with Verb Doubling in Krachi: A Parallel Chains Analysis
(with Harold Torrence)
2021. In Vera Lee-Schoenfeld & Dennis Ott (eds.), Parameters of Predicate Fronting: Cross-linguistic Explorations of V(P)-initial Clauses, 131–156. New York: Oxford University Press.
This article examines verb doubling predicate focus constructions in Krachi, an endangered language of Ghana. Krachi has three such constructions: one where V alone appears in the left periphery; another where VO has been fronted; and a third involving OV inversion in the fronted constituent. Regardless of the fronted constituent, the constructions can be interpreted either contrastively or exhaustively. We argue that all three constructions involve the same mechanism – the formation of parallel chains anchored to the same syntactic object. We propose that the parallel chains formed in all three cases are identical, involving one v-to-T head movement chain and one vʹ-to-Spec, FocP A-bar chain. The reduction of these chains at PF yields the surface doubling of the predicate without appeal to multiple copy spell-out. We propose that minor differences in the PF interpretation of the peripheral vʹ copy account for the differences in word order between the three constructions.
15. Anti-contiguity: A Theory of Wh– Prosody
2020. Oxford University Press. Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax.
Inspired by Richards’ (2010, 2016) Contiguity Theory, this book advances an “anti-contiguity” theory of wh– prosody in which wh– in-situ constructions are constrained from forming prosodic constituents with overt complementizers at the level of Intonational Phrase. The theory is motivated primarily by syntax-prosody interactions in five West African languages (Krachi, Bono, Wasa, Asante Twi, and Nupe), but extensions to various interactions in Bantu, Romance, and Indo-Aryan languages (among others) suggest that the proposal can be successfully applied to languages outside the West African group of languages upon which the theory is based.
16. A First Look at Krachi Clausal Determiners
(with Harold Torrence)
2019. In Margit Bowler, Philip T. Duncan, Travis Major, & Harold Torrence (eds.), Schuhschrift: Papers in Honor of Russell Schuh, 66–76. Los Angeles: eScholarship Publishing.
This article presents the first description of clausal determiners in Krachi. It considers their theoretical significance and compares them to clausal determiners in the related language Gã.
17. African Linguistics on the Prairie
(with Travis Major, Harold Torrence & Philip T. Duncan)
2018. Language Science Press.
Selected Papers from the 45th Annual Conference on African Linguistics.
18. Africa’s Endangered Languages: Documentary and Theoretical Approaches
(with Harold Torrence)
2017. Oxford University Press.
This book examines the endangered languages of Africa from both documentary and theoretical perspectives, focusing on the symbiotic relationship of the two approaches and its consequences for research on and preservation of endangered languages.
19. Africa’s Endangered Languages: An Overview
(with Harold Torrence)
2017. In Jason Kandybowicz & Harold Torrence (eds.), Africa’s Endangered Languages: Documentary and Theoretical Approaches, 1–10. New York: Oxford University Press.
This article provides an overview of language endangerment in sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting previous efforts to document the continent’s endangered languages and ascertain their threat levels, the unique state of language endangerment in Africa as compared to other parts of the world, and the challenges to documentation and revitalization efforts posed by Africa’s endangered languages. As a consequence of these challenges, a disproportionately low amount of research and funding is devoted to the study of endangered African languages when compared to any other linguistically threatened region in the world. We propose nurturing synergistic partnerships between documentary and theoretical linguists researching endangered African languages to stimulate and enhance the depth, visibility, and impact of endangered African language research in the hope of reversing this trend.
20. The Role of Theory in Documentation: Intervention Effects and Missing Gaps in the Krachi Documentary Record
(with Harold Torrence)
2017. In Jason Kandybowicz & Harold Torrence (eds.), Africa’s Endangered Languages: Documentary and Theoretical Approaches, 187–205. New York: Oxford University Press.
This article presents a case study of an instance in which the influence of linguistic theory on descriptive fieldwork has led to both the discovery and remedy of missing gaps in the documentation record of a language. It focuses on the restriction of wh– in-situ induced by intervention effects in Krachi, an endangered Kwa language of Ghana. Investigating Krachi intervention effects both enriches the depth of description of wh– constructions in the language and reveals patterns of intervention effects that differ from what has been documented in other languages in the literature. The Krachi data therefore provide a new set of empirical challenges for current theoretical accounts of intervention effects and thus help to set the theoretical agenda for further work. This case study thus supports the position that the relationship between linguistic theory and language documentation and description is a symbiotic one in that each complements and drives progress in the other.
21. On Prosodic Variation and the Distribution of Wh- In-situ
2017. Linguistic Variation 17.1: 111–148.
In this article, I argue that wh– items in the Tano languages can not phrase with C at the level of Intonational Phrase (ιP) and that the ability of a wh– item to appear in-situ correlates with the prosodic status of its immediately containing clause. Embedded complement clauses are parsed as independent ιP units in Krachi and Bono, but not in Wasa and Asante Twi. Thus, ιP boundaries divide C from embedded interrogatives in Krachi and Bono, preventing the items from forming a prosodic constituent at the level of ιP. Conversely, no such boundaries intervene between embedded C and wh– in Wasa and Asante Twi, yielding prosodic mappings in which the items phrase together. Consequently, embedded wh– in-situ is prosodically licit in Krachi and Bono, but not in Wasa and Asante Twi. In this way, the Tano pattern of wh– in-situ variation reduces to a difference in how syntactic structures are externalized via prosodic mapping.
22. Predicate Focus in Krachi: 2 Probes, 1 Goal, 3 PFs
(with Harold Torrence)
2016. In Kyeong-min Kim (et al. eds.), Proceedings of the 33rd West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics: 227–236. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
This article examines verb doubling predicate focus constructions in Krachi, an endangered language of Ghana. Krachi has three such constructions: one in which V alone appears in the left periphery; another in which V-O has been fronted; and a third involving O-V inversion in the fronted constituent. We propose that all instances of predicate focus with verb doubling in Krachi involve the formation of identical parallel chains, namely, V-to-T and vP-to-Spec,FocP movement. These parallel chains arise because different probes (Foc & T) target the same goal (V). We propose that differences in the PF interpretation of the two vP copies account for the surface differences between the predicate focus constructions in the language. Krachi predicate focus thus provides additional support for analyses like Kandybowicz 2008 and Aboh & Dyakonova 2009 that attempt to derive verb doubling from narrow syntactic mechanisms like parallel chain formation rather than multiple copy spell-out at PF.
23. On Prosodic Vacuity and Verbal Resumption in Asante Twi
2015. Linguistic Inquiry 46.2: 243–272.
I argue that verbal resumption (the occurrence of an additional default verbal element meaning ‘do’) in Asante Twi is prosodically conditioned. Following MATCH theory (Selkirk 2011), I propose that phonosyntactic constituency matching requires, at the minimum, avoidance of phonetically empty transferred syntactic structures (prosodic vacuity). I show that Twi verbal resumption is highly constrained and occurs precisely in those contexts where a prosodically vacuous domain would otherwise be mapped from a fully evacuated Spell-Out domain.
24. Wh- Question Formation in Krachi
(with Harold Torrence)
2015. Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 36.2: 253–285.
This article describes wh– question formation in Krachi. Krachi employs a variety of wh– question formation strategies, including the regionally and genetically prevalent strategies of wh– movement and wh– in-situ, as well as partial wh– movement, a highly marked phenomenon in Kwa. We investigate the properties of each question formation strategy, focusing on the distribution of wh– items and the constraints imposed upon interrogatives across each strategy. We compare these properties in Krachi with those in Akan, the most thoroughly studied Tano language, and find that although there are some similarities, the majority of the features defining Krachi wh– question formation are absent in Akan.
25. The Prosodic Licensing of Wh- In-situ: Evidence from Krachi and Wasa
(with Harold Torrence)
2015. In Ruth Kramer, Elizabeth Zsiga, & One Boyer (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 44th Annual Conference on African Linguistics: 146–157. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
Presented as a plenary talk at the 44th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, this paper evolved into “On Prosodic Variation and the Distribution of Wh– In-situ”.
26. Unweaving the Interrogative Rainbow
(with Harold Torrence)
2013. Annual Conference on African Linguistics 44 plenary talk.
27. Comparative Tano Interrogative Syntax: The View from Krachi & Bono
(with Harold Torrence)
2013. In Olanike Ola Orie & Karen W. Sanders (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference on African Linguistics, 222–234. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
This article describes wh– question formation in Krachi and Bono and considers its typological implications for the genetic relationships among Tano languages. The paper focuses on four phenomena: main clause wh– in-situ; embedded clause wh– in-situ; partial wh– movement; and island-internal wh– in-situ. Comparing wh– question formation in these languages reveals that in most respects Bono patterns similarly to Krachi, yet in others it behaves more like Asante Twi. Given the genetic relationship between the Akan and North Guang branches, of which Bono and Krachi are respective members, this raises the possibility that Bono has preserved interrogative constructions that have been lost in other Akan varieties, supporting a deeper genetic affiliation between the two branches.
28. Ways of Emphatic Scope-taking: From Emphatic Assertion in Nupe to the Grammar of Emphasis.
2013. Lingua 128: 51–71.
This article investigates emphatic assertion in Nupe. Two distinct varieties are attested in the language: a syntactically restricted type that employs a clause-final discourse particle to achieve veridical interpretations and a syntactically unrestricted and interpretationally weaker form that employs verb doubling. I argue that the core distributional and interpretive properties of the two varieties are derivable entirely on syntactic grounds. To account for Nupe’s two emphatic marking strategies, I propose the existence of two emphatic domains: a high left peripheral domain from which the emphatic operator takes scope over polarity and a low TP-internal site in which the operator is outscoped by polarity. Consequently, emphasis is syntactically restricted and semantically strongest when activating the peripheral domain and unrestricted/weakened when invoking the lower clause-internal domain.
29. How Why is Different: Wh-in-situ in Krachi
(with Harold Torrence)
2011. Snippets 23: 5–6.
This article discusses an asymmetry with respect to the merge possibilities of wh– constituents in Krachi. Unlike all other interrogatives in the language, ‘why’ may not appear in-situ. It must surface pre-verbally in a left-peripheral focus position. Krachi thus furnishes additional evidence that amongwh– expressions, ‘why’ is different. It does not have low or high merge variants, but is rather a dedicated peripheral operator.
30. Embracing Edges: Syntactic and Phono-syntactic Edge Sensitivity in Nupe
2009. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 27.2: 305–344.
This article adduces further empirical justification for the inclusion of edges into the Minimalist ontology. By way of two case studies, I show that reference to edge domains in both the narrow syntax and at the syntax-phonology interface facilitates principled explanations to two unsolved puzzles in Nupe. The first study investigates a peculiar restriction on extraction from perfect domains. The most tenable solution emerges when both phase edges and Edge Features are embraced. The second study concerns the proper characterization of Comp-trace effects in the language. The most tenable characterization is one where Comp-trace phenomena involve phono-syntactic edge sensitivity.
31. Externalization & Emergence: On the Status of Parameters in the Minimalist Program
2009. Biolinguistics 3.1: 94–99.
This article discusses several important questions facing the Minimalist Program. To what extent would a parameter-free language faculty represent a departure from optimal design? That is, why did the language faculty evolve with flexible principles over a more minimal/streamlined format consisting solely of fixed principles? In what way can the flexibility of parameterization be squared with the optimal design of the language faculty?
32. The Grammar of Repetition: Nupe Grammar at the Syntax-Phonology Interface
2008. John Benjamins. Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today 136.
This book deals with repetition, an atypical outcome of movement operations in which displaced elements are pronounced multiple times. Although cross-linguistically rare, the phenomenon obtains robustly in Nupe. Repetition raises a tension of the descriptive-explanatory variety. In order to achieve both measures of adequacy, movement theory must be supplemented with an account of the conditions that drive and constrain multiple pronunciation. This book catalogs these conditions, bringing to light a number of undocumented aspects of Nupe grammar.
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